EASTERBROOK, Circuit Judge.
Chicago's Fire Department has five ranks: firefighter, engineer, lieutenant, captain, and battalion chief. Promotions depend on competitive examinations. Chicago developed the 1986 exam for lieutenant (a position open to firefighters and engineers) with care to ensure that it was both non-discriminatory and a valid test of skills. Yet although 29% of those who took the exam were either black or Hispanic, only 12% of those who received the...
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