McLAUGHLIN, Circuit Judge:
BACKGROUND
This case arises out of a short-lived crime spree on the morning of January 29, 1991. Around daybreak, Carlos Medina was riding the subway through Brooklyn, when another passenger tried to rob him at gunpoint. A New York City Transit Police officer happened upon the crime in progress and attempted to intervene; the gunman fired four shots, hitting the police officer twice. At the next stop, the gunman fled the subway...
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