JON O. NEWMAN, Circuit Judge:
Section 2(b) of the Criminal Code makes a person liable as a principal for "willfully caus[ing] an act to be done which if directly performed by him or another would be an offense against the United States." 18 U.S.C. § 2(b) (1988). This appeal presents the apparently novel issues of whether a defendant may be liable for a substantive offense (a) as an aider or abetter of a "causer," and (b) as a co-conspirator of a "causer" under...
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