ROGERS, Circuit Judge.
To carry out the 1977 amendments to the Clean Air Act, the Environmental Protection Agency ("EPA") promulgated a rule in 2001 requiring a 95% reduction in nitrogen oxide ("NOx") emissions by heavy-duty motor vehicles by 2010. At the time, no technology existed to achieve these reductions. EPA regulations provide, as Congress has authorized, for nonconformance penalties ("NCPs") to protect technological laggards by allowing them to pay a penalty...
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